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Glossary of Argumentation Techniques

Logical fallacies, manipulation, cognitive biases and tricks used in media, advertising and politics. Learn to recognize them.

Total entries: 40

🌐 Available languages: 🇨🇿 cs 40 🇩🇪 de 40 🇬🇧 en 40 🇪🇸 es 40 🇵🇱 pl 40 🇸🇰 sk 40

All (40) Logical Fallacies (19) Manipulation Techniques (1) Cognitive Bias (4) Advertising and PR Tricks (4) Disinformation Techniques (5) Propaganda Techniques (7)

Results for: Logical Fallacies (19 results)

Logical Fallacies

Ad hominem

An attack on the person presenting the argument instead of a substantive response to the argument itself. The speaker criticizes the charact...

Also: argument to the person, personal attack, argumentum ad hominem

Logical Fallacies

Ad hominem

An attack on the person presenting the argument instead of a substantive response to the argument itself. The speaker criticizes the character, motives, education, or background of the opponent — but does not refute what was said. Even if the criticism of the person is true, it does not mean that their argument is incorrect.

Example usage

A: "This study shows that smoking is harmful to health." B: "What do you know about science, you're just a high school teacher and you've never done research." (An attack on education instead of the content of the study.)

Also: argument to the person, personal attack, argumentum ad hominem, personal attack, ad hominem attack

Full detail Source

Logical Fallacies

Straw Man

The speaker creates a distorted, exaggerated, or simplified version of the opponent's position that is easy to attack — and then argues agai...

Also: straw man, straw figure, argument caricature

Logical Fallacies

Straw Man

The speaker creates a distorted, exaggerated, or simplified version of the opponent's position that is easy to attack — and then argues against this caricature. The actual argument of the opponent remains untouched.

Example usage

A: "We should invest more in public transport." B: "So you want to ban all cars and force people to walk?!" (B caricatures A — A never said anything like that.)

Also: straw man, straw figure, argument caricature, distortion of position

Full detail Source

Logical Fallacies

False Dilemma

The speaker presents a situation as if there are only two possible solutions, while in reality, there are more. It forces the audience to ch...

Also: black-and-white thinking, false dichotomy, binary thinking

Logical Fallacies

False Dilemma

The speaker presents a situation as if there are only two possible solutions, while in reality, there are more. It forces the audience to choose between A and B, even though options C, D, or a compromise exist. It is often used to create pressure.

Example usage

Politician: "You are either for our law or against child safety." (Ignores that one can be for child safety but against the specific wording of the law.)

Also: black-and-white thinking, false dichotomy, binary thinking, either-or, false dilemma

Full detail Source

Logical Fallacies

False Analogy

The speaker compares two things that share one or two common properties and concludes that they must also share other properties. However, t...

Also: false analogy, faulty analogy, inappropriate comparison

Logical Fallacies

False Analogy

The speaker compares two things that share one or two common properties and concludes that they must also share other properties. However, the analogy only holds where the compared things are truly similar in the relevant aspect — which is not the case with a false analogy.

Example usage

"The state should manage like a family budget — when I have no money, I can't spend." (National economy and family budget operate very differently — the state controls the currency, collects taxes, invests in long-term infrastructure.)

Also: false analogy, faulty analogy, inappropriate comparison

Full detail Source

Logical Fallacies

Slippery Slope

The speaker claims that one step will necessarily lead to a chain of further steps with catastrophic consequences — without proving that thi...

Also: slippery slope, chain deduction, domino effect

Logical Fallacies

Slippery Slope

The speaker claims that one step will necessarily lead to a chain of further steps with catastrophic consequences — without proving that this causal chain reaction will actually occur. Fear of a hypothetical future is used as an argument against taking the harmless first step.

Example usage

"If we allow same-sex marriage, tomorrow people will want marriage with children and animals." (A logical leap without proof that this would actually happen.)

Also: slippery slope, chain deduction, domino effect

Full detail Source

Logical Fallacies

Argument from Authority

A claim is considered true simply because it was made by someone famous or influential — regardless of whether they have actual expertise in...

Also: argumentum ad verecundiam, appeal to authority, appeal to unknown authority

Logical Fallacies

Argument from Authority

A claim is considered true simply because it was made by someone famous or influential — regardless of whether they have actual expertise in the area. Using a real expert in their field is acceptable, but the argument becomes fallacious when: (a) the expert speaks outside their field, (b) it involves anonymous 'scientists say...', (c) there is no consensus in the field.

Example usage

"A famous actor recommends this homeopathic treatment — if he says it, it must work." (The actor is not a doctor.) Or: "American scientists have proven..." (Who? What research?)

Also: argumentum ad verecundiam, appeal to authority, appeal to unknown authority, authority bias

Full detail Source

Logical Fallacies

Circular Argument

An argument in which the conclusion is used as one of the premises — instead of proving, the statement is merely repeated in different words...

Also: circle in proof, circular reasoning, petitio principii

Logical Fallacies

Circular Argument

An argument in which the conclusion is used as one of the premises — instead of proving, the statement is merely repeated in different words. It appears to be a logical reasoning but actually goes nowhere.

Example usage

A: "The Bible is true because it is the word of God." B: "And how do you know it is the word of God?" A: "Because the Bible says so." (The conclusion "The Bible is true" is used to prove itself.)

Also: circle in proof, circular reasoning, petitio principii, assuming the conclusion, tautology

Full detail Source

Logical Fallacies

Argument from Majority

The assertion that something is true, good, or right simply because the majority of people believe it. The popularity of an opinion is not e...

Also: argumentum ad populum, appeal to the masses, appeal to popularity

Logical Fallacies

Argument from Majority

The assertion that something is true, good, or right simply because the majority of people believe it. The popularity of an opinion is not evidence of its truth — historically, majorities have believed that the Earth is flat, that slavery is acceptable, or that smoking is healthy.

Example usage

"Millions of people drink coffee every morning, so coffee can't be harmful to health." Or: "Most Czechs agree with this, so it must be right."

Also: argumentum ad populum, appeal to the masses, appeal to popularity, bandwagon, argument from majority

Full detail Source

Logical Fallacies

Post hoc ergo propter hoc

A logical fallacy that confuses succession with causation. From the fact that event B follows event A, the speaker automatically concludes t...

Also: post hoc fallacy, after this, therefore because of this

Logical Fallacies

Post hoc ergo propter hoc

A logical fallacy that confuses succession with causation. From the fact that event B follows event A, the speaker automatically concludes that A caused B. Correlation is not the same as causation — to speak of a cause, we must rule out other possible explanations.

Example usage

"I ate a roll in the morning and then I had a headache — the roll caused my migraine!" Or: "After vaccination, the child got the flu — the vaccination weakened them." (In both cases, dozens of other factors could have played a role.)

Also: post hoc fallacy, after this, therefore because of this, confusing correlation with causation, cum hoc ergo propter hoc

Full detail Source

Logical Fallacies

Argument from Wealth or Poverty

The truth of a claim is derived from the economic status of the speaker. Either "he is rich, so he is right / cannot be bribed" or "he is po...

Also: argumentum ad crumenam, argumentum ad lazarum, money argument

Logical Fallacies

Argument from Wealth or Poverty

The truth of a claim is derived from the economic status of the speaker. Either "he is rich, so he is right / cannot be bribed" or "he is poor, so he is right because he has no reason to lie." Wealth or poverty, however, does not relate to the truth of the argument.

Example usage

"He is a billionaire and lives modestly, so when he says that taxes are harmful, he must be right." Or: "A rich person cannot know how an ordinary person lives."

Also: argumentum ad crumenam, argumentum ad lazarum, money argument, argument from poverty

Full detail Source

Logical Fallacies

Appeal to Fear

An attempt to persuade someone by invoking anxiety, panic, or fear instead of factual arguments. Fear bypasses rational thinking and pushes...

Also: fear-mongering, argumentum ad metum, scaring

Logical Fallacies

Appeal to Fear

An attempt to persuade someone by invoking anxiety, panic, or fear instead of factual arguments. Fear bypasses rational thinking and pushes for quick decisions.

Example usage

"If you don't pass this law, our country will collapse and your children will live in poverty."

Also: fear-mongering, argumentum ad metum, scaring, scare tactics

Full detail Source

Logical Fallacies

Appeal to Emotion

Using strong emotions (pity, anger, nostalgia, patriotism) instead of factual arguments. Emotions are not proof in themselves; an emotional...

Also: argumentum ad passiones, emotional blackmail, appeal to emotion

Logical Fallacies

Appeal to Emotion

Using strong emotions (pity, anger, nostalgia, patriotism) instead of factual arguments. Emotions are not proof in themselves; an emotional reaction to a situation does not make a claim about it true.

Example usage

"Think of the starving children — that's why you must support our bill for farmer subsidies."

Also: argumentum ad passiones, emotional blackmail, appeal to emotion

Full detail Source

Logical Fallacies

Appeal to Pity

An attempt to persuade someone by invoking pity instead of a factual argument. The speaker shifts the focus from the substance of the argume...

Also: argumentum ad misericordiam, appeal to pity, appeal to compassion

Logical Fallacies

Appeal to Pity

An attempt to persuade someone by invoking pity instead of a factual argument. The speaker shifts the focus from the substance of the argument to their difficult situation — whether real or exaggerated — to gain approval or to prevent criticism.

Example usage

Student: "Teacher, please don't give me a failing grade — you have a family, you surely understand how hard it is when I've been working all weekend." (Workload is unrelated to how the student handled the material.)

Also: argumentum ad misericordiam, appeal to pity, appeal to compassion

Full detail Source

Logical Fallacies

Argument by force

An attempt to assert one's truth through threats — physical, economic, legal, or otherwise. Instead of evidence, the speaker implies adverse...

Also: argumentum ad baculum, appeal to force, stick argument

Logical Fallacies

Argument by force

An attempt to assert one's truth through threats — physical, economic, legal, or otherwise. Instead of evidence, the speaker implies adverse consequences if the opponent does not accept the argument as true. The threat itself is not evidence.

Example usage

Boss: "If you disagree with my analysis of market trends, you probably aren't well-placed in our company." (A threat of dismissal instead of a factual discussion.)

Also: argumentum ad baculum, appeal to force, stick argument, intimidation

Full detail Source

Logical Fallacies

Whataboutism

A response to criticism by referencing another (often unrelated) fault of the other party. Instead of addressing the original issue, attenti...

Also: what about that, tu quoque, diversion

Logical Fallacies

Whataboutism

A response to criticism by referencing another (often unrelated) fault of the other party. Instead of addressing the original issue, attention is diverted: "What about that?". A technique popular in Soviet propaganda.

Example usage

A: "Your government arrested a journalist." B: "What about in America? How many Black people has the police shot?"

Also: what about that, tu quoque, diversion

Full detail Source

Logical Fallacies

Argument from Common Sense

Presenting claims with the assertion that "it just makes sense" or "everyone knows this", without providing evidence. It pressures the oppon...

Also: argumentum ad ignorantiam, common sense argument, everyone knows

Logical Fallacies

Argument from Common Sense

Presenting claims with the assertion that "it just makes sense" or "everyone knows this", without providing evidence. It pressures the opponent into the role of someone lacking common sense if they disagree.

Example usage

"Every normal person can see that the Earth can never rotate — that’s common sense."

Also: argumentum ad ignorantiam, common sense argument, everyone knows

Logical Fallacies

Wishful Thinking

The speaker claims that something is true or will happen because they strongly wish it to be — or conversely, that something is not true bec...

Also: wishful thinking, argumentum ad consequentiam, consequence argument

Logical Fallacies

Wishful Thinking

The speaker claims that something is true or will happen because they strongly wish it to be — or conversely, that something is not true because they do not wish it to be so. Emotion and desire replace evidence.

Example usage

"Climate change is not a problem — our civilization will cope with it because it has to." Or: "Inflation must have certainly ended, otherwise we couldn't economically endure it."

Also: wishful thinking, argumentum ad consequentiam, consequence argument

Full detail Source

Logical Fallacies

Unfalsifiability

The speaker presents a claim that cannot be fundamentally disproven — and asserts that this is why it is true. The fallacy confuses unfalsif...

Also: unfalsifiability, pseudoscientific claim, argumentum ad ignorantiam

Logical Fallacies

Unfalsifiability

The speaker presents a claim that cannot be fundamentally disproven — and asserts that this is why it is true. The fallacy confuses unfalsifiability with truth. The burden of proof lies with the one making the claim, not the skeptical opponent.

Example usage

"The conspiracy of the elites is so well organized that it leaves no traces. The fact that you see no evidence is itself proof of how well they hide it." (The claim contains no way it could be disproven.)

Also: unfalsifiability, pseudoscientific claim, argumentum ad ignorantiam

Full detail Source

Logical Fallacies

Red Herring

A deliberate diversion of attention from the core issue to another topic that is interesting but unrelated to the original question. The dis...

Also: red herring, distraction, ignoratio elenchi

Logical Fallacies

Red Herring

A deliberate diversion of attention from the core issue to another topic that is interesting but unrelated to the original question. The discussion shifts direction, leaving the original problem unanswered.

Example usage

Reporter: "Minister, how do you explain the missing millions from the subsidies?" Minister: "The main problem in our country is not a few million — it's the disrespect of journalists towards the work of politicians." (Does not answer the question, changes the topic.)

Also: red herring, distraction, ignoratio elenchi

Full detail Source