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Glossary of Argumentation Techniques

Logical fallacies, manipulation, cognitive biases and tricks used in media, advertising and politics. Learn to recognize them.

Total entries: 40

🌐 Available languages: 🇨🇿 cs 40 🇩🇪 de 40 🇬🇧 en 40 🇪🇸 es 40 🇵🇱 pl 40 🇸🇰 sk 40

All (40) Logical Fallacies (19) Manipulation Techniques (1) Cognitive Bias (4) Advertising and PR Tricks (4) Disinformation Techniques (5) Propaganda Techniques (7)

Logical Fallacies

Ad hominem

An attack on the person presenting the argument instead of a substantive response to the argument itself. The speaker criticizes the charact...

Also: argument to the person, personal attack, argumentum ad hominem

Logical Fallacies

Ad hominem

An attack on the person presenting the argument instead of a substantive response to the argument itself. The speaker criticizes the character, motives, education, or background of the opponent — but does not refute what was said. Even if the criticism of the person is true, it does not mean that their argument is incorrect.

Example usage

A: "This study shows that smoking is harmful to health." B: "What do you know about science, you're just a high school teacher and you've never done research." (An attack on education instead of the content of the study.)

Also: argument to the person, personal attack, argumentum ad hominem, personal attack, ad hominem attack

Full detail Source

Logical Fallacies

Straw Man

The speaker creates a distorted, exaggerated, or simplified version of the opponent's position that is easy to attack — and then argues agai...

Also: straw man, straw figure, argument caricature

Logical Fallacies

Straw Man

The speaker creates a distorted, exaggerated, or simplified version of the opponent's position that is easy to attack — and then argues against this caricature. The actual argument of the opponent remains untouched.

Example usage

A: "We should invest more in public transport." B: "So you want to ban all cars and force people to walk?!" (B caricatures A — A never said anything like that.)

Also: straw man, straw figure, argument caricature, distortion of position

Full detail Source

Logical Fallacies

False Dilemma

The speaker presents a situation as if there are only two possible solutions, while in reality, there are more. It forces the audience to ch...

Also: black-and-white thinking, false dichotomy, binary thinking

Logical Fallacies

False Dilemma

The speaker presents a situation as if there are only two possible solutions, while in reality, there are more. It forces the audience to choose between A and B, even though options C, D, or a compromise exist. It is often used to create pressure.

Example usage

Politician: "You are either for our law or against child safety." (Ignores that one can be for child safety but against the specific wording of the law.)

Also: black-and-white thinking, false dichotomy, binary thinking, either-or, false dilemma

Full detail Source

Logical Fallacies

False Analogy

The speaker compares two things that share one or two common properties and concludes that they must also share other properties. However, t...

Also: false analogy, faulty analogy, inappropriate comparison

Logical Fallacies

False Analogy

The speaker compares two things that share one or two common properties and concludes that they must also share other properties. However, the analogy only holds where the compared things are truly similar in the relevant aspect — which is not the case with a false analogy.

Example usage

"The state should manage like a family budget — when I have no money, I can't spend." (National economy and family budget operate very differently — the state controls the currency, collects taxes, invests in long-term infrastructure.)

Also: false analogy, faulty analogy, inappropriate comparison

Full detail Source

Logical Fallacies

Slippery Slope

The speaker claims that one step will necessarily lead to a chain of further steps with catastrophic consequences — without proving that thi...

Also: slippery slope, chain deduction, domino effect

Logical Fallacies

Slippery Slope

The speaker claims that one step will necessarily lead to a chain of further steps with catastrophic consequences — without proving that this causal chain reaction will actually occur. Fear of a hypothetical future is used as an argument against taking the harmless first step.

Example usage

"If we allow same-sex marriage, tomorrow people will want marriage with children and animals." (A logical leap without proof that this would actually happen.)

Also: slippery slope, chain deduction, domino effect

Full detail Source

Logical Fallacies

Argument from Authority

A claim is considered true simply because it was made by someone famous or influential — regardless of whether they have actual expertise in...

Also: argumentum ad verecundiam, appeal to authority, appeal to unknown authority

Logical Fallacies

Argument from Authority

A claim is considered true simply because it was made by someone famous or influential — regardless of whether they have actual expertise in the area. Using a real expert in their field is acceptable, but the argument becomes fallacious when: (a) the expert speaks outside their field, (b) it involves anonymous 'scientists say...', (c) there is no consensus in the field.

Example usage

"A famous actor recommends this homeopathic treatment — if he says it, it must work." (The actor is not a doctor.) Or: "American scientists have proven..." (Who? What research?)

Also: argumentum ad verecundiam, appeal to authority, appeal to unknown authority, authority bias

Full detail Source

Logical Fallacies

Circular Argument

An argument in which the conclusion is used as one of the premises — instead of proving, the statement is merely repeated in different words...

Also: circle in proof, circular reasoning, petitio principii

Logical Fallacies

Circular Argument

An argument in which the conclusion is used as one of the premises — instead of proving, the statement is merely repeated in different words. It appears to be a logical reasoning but actually goes nowhere.

Example usage

A: "The Bible is true because it is the word of God." B: "And how do you know it is the word of God?" A: "Because the Bible says so." (The conclusion "The Bible is true" is used to prove itself.)

Also: circle in proof, circular reasoning, petitio principii, assuming the conclusion, tautology

Full detail Source

Logical Fallacies

Argument from Majority

The assertion that something is true, good, or right simply because the majority of people believe it. The popularity of an opinion is not e...

Also: argumentum ad populum, appeal to the masses, appeal to popularity

Logical Fallacies

Argument from Majority

The assertion that something is true, good, or right simply because the majority of people believe it. The popularity of an opinion is not evidence of its truth — historically, majorities have believed that the Earth is flat, that slavery is acceptable, or that smoking is healthy.

Example usage

"Millions of people drink coffee every morning, so coffee can't be harmful to health." Or: "Most Czechs agree with this, so it must be right."

Also: argumentum ad populum, appeal to the masses, appeal to popularity, bandwagon, argument from majority

Full detail Source

Logical Fallacies

Post hoc ergo propter hoc

A logical fallacy that confuses succession with causation. From the fact that event B follows event A, the speaker automatically concludes t...

Also: post hoc fallacy, after this, therefore because of this

Logical Fallacies

Post hoc ergo propter hoc

A logical fallacy that confuses succession with causation. From the fact that event B follows event A, the speaker automatically concludes that A caused B. Correlation is not the same as causation — to speak of a cause, we must rule out other possible explanations.

Example usage

"I ate a roll in the morning and then I had a headache — the roll caused my migraine!" Or: "After vaccination, the child got the flu — the vaccination weakened them." (In both cases, dozens of other factors could have played a role.)

Also: post hoc fallacy, after this, therefore because of this, confusing correlation with causation, cum hoc ergo propter hoc

Full detail Source

Propaganda Techniques

Appeal to Tradition

The claim that something is right or true simply because it has always been done that way or has always been the case. The length of traditi...

Also: appeal to tradition, argumentum ad antiquitatem, argument from tradition

Propaganda Techniques

Appeal to Tradition

The claim that something is right or true simply because it has always been done that way or has always been the case. The length of tradition, however, is not an argument for its correctness — historically, many things that we now view as wrong (slavery, discrimination, etc.) were practiced 'always'.

Example usage

"Women shouldn't vote, it's always been that way." Or: "Our family has always supported this party, so I will vote for it too."

Also: appeal to tradition, argumentum ad antiquitatem, argument from tradition, it's always been that way

Full detail Source

Logical Fallacies

Argument from Wealth or Poverty

The truth of a claim is derived from the economic status of the speaker. Either "he is rich, so he is right / cannot be bribed" or "he is po...

Also: argumentum ad crumenam, argumentum ad lazarum, money argument

Logical Fallacies

Argument from Wealth or Poverty

The truth of a claim is derived from the economic status of the speaker. Either "he is rich, so he is right / cannot be bribed" or "he is poor, so he is right because he has no reason to lie." Wealth or poverty, however, does not relate to the truth of the argument.

Example usage

"He is a billionaire and lives modestly, so when he says that taxes are harmful, he must be right." Or: "A rich person cannot know how an ordinary person lives."

Also: argumentum ad crumenam, argumentum ad lazarum, money argument, argument from poverty

Full detail Source

Logical Fallacies

Appeal to Fear

An attempt to persuade someone by invoking anxiety, panic, or fear instead of factual arguments. Fear bypasses rational thinking and pushes...

Also: fear-mongering, argumentum ad metum, scaring

Logical Fallacies

Appeal to Fear

An attempt to persuade someone by invoking anxiety, panic, or fear instead of factual arguments. Fear bypasses rational thinking and pushes for quick decisions.

Example usage

"If you don't pass this law, our country will collapse and your children will live in poverty."

Also: fear-mongering, argumentum ad metum, scaring, scare tactics

Full detail Source

Propaganda Techniques

Blame Attribution

A propaganda technique where a specific culprit — an individual, institution, or group — is publicly identified as responsible for a negativ...

Also: blaming, defining the enemy, scapegoating

Propaganda Techniques

Blame Attribution

A propaganda technique where a specific culprit — an individual, institution, or group — is publicly identified as responsible for a negative development. The goal is to define an 'enemy', divert attention from the real causes, and focus the audience's anger in one direction. Blame is placed on a specific figure, not the complexity of circumstances.

Example usage

Politician: 'Brussels and Soros are to blame for inflation.' (Complex macroeconomic causes are reduced to a single culprit that the audience can accuse.)

Also: blaming, defining the enemy, scapegoating, goat of sacrifice

Full detail Source

Propaganda Techniques

Labeling

A simplified, expressive name for an opponent or their group — often derogatory, dehumanizing, or mocking. Instead of a factual discussion,...

Also: labeling, name calling, dehumanizing language

Propaganda Techniques

Labeling

A simplified, expressive name for an opponent or their group — often derogatory, dehumanizing, or mocking. Instead of a factual discussion, the audience receives a label that is easy to remember and evokes an emotional reaction. The labeled person becomes a caricature, not a full-fledged discussion partner.

Example usage

“Sunshine lovers”, “Welcomers”, “True patriots”, “Russian cockroach”, “Olomouc lizard” — terms intended to evoke disgust or ridicule before the audience is familiar with the opponent's arguments.

Also: labeling, name calling, dehumanizing language, expressive naming

Full detail Source

Logical Fallacies

Appeal to Emotion

Using strong emotions (pity, anger, nostalgia, patriotism) instead of factual arguments. Emotions are not proof in themselves; an emotional...

Also: argumentum ad passiones, emotional blackmail, appeal to emotion

Logical Fallacies

Appeal to Emotion

Using strong emotions (pity, anger, nostalgia, patriotism) instead of factual arguments. Emotions are not proof in themselves; an emotional reaction to a situation does not make a claim about it true.

Example usage

"Think of the starving children — that's why you must support our bill for farmer subsidies."

Also: argumentum ad passiones, emotional blackmail, appeal to emotion

Full detail Source

Logical Fallacies

Appeal to Pity

An attempt to persuade someone by invoking pity instead of a factual argument. The speaker shifts the focus from the substance of the argume...

Also: argumentum ad misericordiam, appeal to pity, appeal to compassion

Logical Fallacies

Appeal to Pity

An attempt to persuade someone by invoking pity instead of a factual argument. The speaker shifts the focus from the substance of the argument to their difficult situation — whether real or exaggerated — to gain approval or to prevent criticism.

Example usage

Student: "Teacher, please don't give me a failing grade — you have a family, you surely understand how hard it is when I've been working all weekend." (Workload is unrelated to how the student handled the material.)

Also: argumentum ad misericordiam, appeal to pity, appeal to compassion

Full detail Source

Logical Fallacies

Argument by force

An attempt to assert one's truth through threats — physical, economic, legal, or otherwise. Instead of evidence, the speaker implies adverse...

Also: argumentum ad baculum, appeal to force, stick argument

Logical Fallacies

Argument by force

An attempt to assert one's truth through threats — physical, economic, legal, or otherwise. Instead of evidence, the speaker implies adverse consequences if the opponent does not accept the argument as true. The threat itself is not evidence.

Example usage

Boss: "If you disagree with my analysis of market trends, you probably aren't well-placed in our company." (A threat of dismissal instead of a factual discussion.)

Also: argumentum ad baculum, appeal to force, stick argument, intimidation

Full detail Source

Manipulation Techniques

Gaslighting

A manipulation technique where the manipulator systematically questions the victim's perception of reality. The goal is to make the victim d...

Also: gas lighting, reality questioning

Manipulation Techniques

Gaslighting

A manipulation technique where the manipulator systematically questions the victim's perception of reality. The goal is to make the victim doubt their own memory, judgment, or sanity. The name comes from the film Gaslight (1944).

Example usage

"You're making that up, I never said that. You're paranoid. Why do you complicate everything?"

Also: gas lighting, reality questioning

Full detail Source

Propaganda Techniques

Demonization

Labeling a person, group, or idea as evil, dangerous, or outright 'satanic'. Often involves false accusations of the worst acts (betrayal, c...

Also: demonizing, satanization, dehumanization

Propaganda Techniques

Demonization

Labeling a person, group, or idea as evil, dangerous, or outright 'satanic'. Often involves false accusations of the worst acts (betrayal, collaboration, planning evil) and dehumanizes the opponent. The goal is to create an absolute moral chasm between 'us' and 'them'.

Example usage

'These people are traitors who want to sell our country to foreign powers.' Or: 'They are demons in human form.'

Also: demonizing, satanization, dehumanization, traitors

Full detail Source

Logical Fallacies

Whataboutism

A response to criticism by referencing another (often unrelated) fault of the other party. Instead of addressing the original issue, attenti...

Also: what about that, tu quoque, diversion

Logical Fallacies

Whataboutism

A response to criticism by referencing another (often unrelated) fault of the other party. Instead of addressing the original issue, attention is diverted: "What about that?". A technique popular in Soviet propaganda.

Example usage

A: "Your government arrested a journalist." B: "What about in America? How many Black people has the police shot?"

Also: what about that, tu quoque, diversion

Full detail Source

Logical Fallacies

Argument from Common Sense

Presenting claims with the assertion that "it just makes sense" or "everyone knows this", without providing evidence. It pressures the oppon...

Also: argumentum ad ignorantiam, common sense argument, everyone knows

Logical Fallacies

Argument from Common Sense

Presenting claims with the assertion that "it just makes sense" or "everyone knows this", without providing evidence. It pressures the opponent into the role of someone lacking common sense if they disagree.

Example usage

"Every normal person can see that the Earth can never rotate — that’s common sense."

Also: argumentum ad ignorantiam, common sense argument, everyone knows

Propaganda Techniques

Common People Argument

The speaker presents themselves as a representative of ordinary people and distinguishes themselves from the so-called elites. They use coll...

Also: common man, plain folks, folksiness

Propaganda Techniques

Common People Argument

The speaker presents themselves as a representative of ordinary people and distinguishes themselves from the so-called elites. They use colloquial language, share everyday concerns, and create the illusion that their opinions reflect the 'common sense' of the majority. However, this technique serves to gain trust, not to make substantive arguments.

Example usage

"I’m just an ordinary guy from the countryside, I know how normal people live. Those politicians in Prague have no idea what we deal with in the villages." (Argument about personal background instead of substantive issues.)

Also: common man, plain folks, folksiness, common sense argument

Full detail Source

Propaganda Techniques

Patriotism Argument

Justifying opinions, actions, or policies by appealing to national sentiment, the homeland, 'our interests' or 'our values'. An appeal to pa...

Also: flag-waving, patriotic appeal, appeal to patriotism

Propaganda Techniques

Patriotism Argument

Justifying opinions, actions, or policies by appealing to national sentiment, the homeland, 'our interests' or 'our values'. An appeal to patriotism bypasses substantive discussion, and anyone who disagrees is labeled as unpatriotic.

Example usage

"Whoever is against this law is against the Czech Republic." Or: "In the interest of our homeland, we must adopt these measures — there is no time for doubt."

Also: flag-waving, patriotic appeal, appeal to patriotism, national argument

Full detail Source

Logical Fallacies

Wishful Thinking

The speaker claims that something is true or will happen because they strongly wish it to be — or conversely, that something is not true bec...

Also: wishful thinking, argumentum ad consequentiam, consequence argument

Logical Fallacies

Wishful Thinking

The speaker claims that something is true or will happen because they strongly wish it to be — or conversely, that something is not true because they do not wish it to be so. Emotion and desire replace evidence.

Example usage

"Climate change is not a problem — our civilization will cope with it because it has to." Or: "Inflation must have certainly ended, otherwise we couldn't economically endure it."

Also: wishful thinking, argumentum ad consequentiam, consequence argument

Full detail Source